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Contents

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• Introduction
• Sustainability & Housing
• Planning, Community & Sustainability
  • What Makes Residential Development Sustainable
  • Resource use and pollution
  • A cohesive community
  • Residential development and jobs
  • Achieving Neighbourhood Sustainability
  • Sustainability and the planning system
  • Mixed land uses
  • Residential densities
  • Brownfield sites
  • Transport considerations
  • Community and sustainability
  • Urban and neighbourhood design
  • Rural Areas
  • Partnership
• The Site & The Dwelling
• Energy Use
• Resource Conservation
• Healthy Dwellings
• Maintenance & Rehabilitation
• Finance & Management
• Useful Addresses
• Bibliography
• Selected Reference Material
• Case Studies
• Acknowledgements

2. Planning, Community And Sustainability

This Chapter deals with how to make residential developments more sustainable when considered as a whole and within the wider context of the built environment, urban and rural. The focus will be on the role of housing providers in the development process, including the redevelopment of existing areas, within a land use planning and urban design system which gives sustainability a prime position.

2.1 What Makes Residential Development Sustainable?

A sustainable residential development

• minimises resource use, waste and pollution

• provides the physical context for a cohesive community and

• provides access to employment.

Satisfying all these requirements can be achieved by moving towards a different urban form which challenges the accepted wisdom of land use planning in the post war era. Higher density, mixed use development can reduce the need for travel, make better use of existing urban space and infrastructure, and provide high quality residential areas. In rural areas, development in existing settlements can also reduce the need for travel (although to a lesser extent than in urban areas) and makes maximum use of existing infrastructure. The ways in which sustainability can be achieved are summarised in Table 2.1 and described below.

2.1.1 Resource use and pollution

The biggest source of pollution from residential neighbourhoods, urban and rural, is car use. A key dimension of neighbourhood sustainability is the extent to which travel to and from the neighbourhood is minimised and opportunities for walking, cycling and the use of public transport are maximised.

Given the rising demand for housing generated by falling household size and other demographic changes, increasing pressure will be placed on land for residential development.

The form and location of development will have implications for travel patterns, car use and levels of pollution. Resource use can be reduced by making the maximum use of existing infrastructure and land.

These issues can be tackled and neighbourhood sustainability enhanced by:

• mixed land use development

• higher residential densities

• use of brownfield sites

• lower levels of parking provision, including car-free development

• residential development designed to enhance walking, cycling and the use of public transport.

Higher densities and mixed use development can also reduce non-transport energy consumption, in particular heating and power requirements. Combined heat and power (CHP) and district heating (DH) schemes become more viable with higher densities and mixed uses (see Chapter Four).

Table 2.1 Neighbourhood sustainability

Problems	Causes	Solutions	Mechanisms
Energy use (transport) Pollution	Car dependency	Reduce need to travel Facilitate other travel Higher densities modes	Mixed land uses Higher densities Access to public transport Car free developments Home zones Pedestrian friendly design Cycleways
Energy use (heat and power) Pollution	Inefficient heating systems	More efficient heating systems	Combined heat and power District heating Neighbourhood design
Land take / infrastructure use	Greenfield development Low densities	Brownfield development Higher densities	Brownfield development Higher densities
Social exclusion	Segregation Single tenure development Unequal access to facilities Remoteness from centres of employment	Social mix Equal access to facilities Accessibility to employment centres	Mixed tenure development Changed allocation policies Equal access to facilities Siting of housing close to employment Foyers Use of local labour

2.1.2 A cohesive community

Making towns and cities, especially their inner areas and peripheral schemes, more attractive as places to live is both an essential part of urban regeneration and also an opportunity for residential development to become more sustainable (Figures 2.1 - 2.2). This covers not only the environmental dimension but also the social aspects of sustainability in terms of cohesive neighbourhood communities. The most energy efficient and environment friendly neighbourhood possible is useless if people don't want to live in it. Fortunately, it is possible to develop and redevelop in such a way that environmental and social dimensions reinforce each other.

Ideally, settlements in rural areas and neighbourhoods in urban areas should be communities. Community as a concept is difficult to define and even more difficult to put into practice; there are no magic formulae to produce communities. It is possible however to say what successful communities should be like. They should be secure and crime free, offer access to schools, shops, entertainment and employment, and facilitate the creation and maintenance of supportive social networks. To avoid the large scale social polarisation so evident in parts of Scotland, they should wherever possible be mixed in tenure, income levels, family types and age groups. As many of these elements as possible should be present. Research has revealed for example that mixed tenure alone does not increase social interaction within a neighbourhood¹. As a minimum, cohesive communities require:

• continuity and a low turnover of residents

• social balance

• high quality urban design.

2.1.3 Residential development and jobs

The location of residential development so that it is accessible to employment is an essential component of sustainability; it reduces travel and pollution, strengthens local economies and counters social exclusion. Large areas of low demand for housing have been created at least partly because of a lack of access to employment; this is wasteful of resources and socially harmful.

Integrating employment and housing provision is not easy, however, since they are normally the responsibility of different agencies. Direct ways of ensuring that jobs and homes are integrated include foyers (where accommodation for young people is linked to training²) and the use of local labour in housing redevelopment³. More generally, housing providers should always consider the access to employment when planning development for households of working age.

2.2 Achieving Neighbourhood Sustainability

As the rate of replacement of the housing stock is about one per cent per annum, achieving neighbourhood sustainability becomes a task of working with the existing built environment rather than optimising the opportunities presented by new build on a large scale. This implies accommodation and compromise. Housing providers have to work with the development opportunities, especially sites that arise.

Moreover, housing is just one element of a neighbourhood and housing developers must work with others - local authorities, the private sector, and other voluntary organisations - if co-ordinated and successful sustainability strategies are to be achieved. This means that partnerships are essential if neighbourhood sustainability is to be enhanced.

2.2.1 Sustainability and the planning system

A sustainable neighbourhood has essential elements which are not the responsibility of housing developers and over which they have little influence. Overall control of neighbourhood development lies mainly with land use planners, who determine crucial variables such as land use mix and residential densities. Planning for much of the post war period was driven by accommodation of the car (minimum parking standards for residential development for instance), low densities (below 20 dwellings per hectare in many cases), and mono-functional zoning of land use. Since the UK Government's commitment to sustainable development following the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992, however, planning policies have been radically revised and detailed guidance is now available to local planning authorities on how to incorporate sustainability into development plans⁴. Specific guidance has also been issued for Scotland through National Planning Policy Guidelines and Planning Advice Notes. Of particular relevance are NPPG 3 “Land for Housing”, and NPPG 17 and PAN 57 "Transport and Planning" (see Box 2.1)⁵

Box 2.1 - Scottish Office guidance on planning and sustainability

• The following have been advocated by the Scottish Office:

• the re-use of urban land (NPPG 3, paragraph 13)

• using existing infra-structure to the full (NPPG 3, paragraph 18)

• taking into account the energy efficiency of the settlement patterns (NPPG 3, paragraph 18)

• re-use of existing buildings ( NPPG 3, paragraph 25)

• mixed use development (NPPG 3, paragraph 28)

• where new settlements are necessary they should be readily serviced by public transport (NPPG 3, paragraph 44)

• where development is necessary in the countryside, it should preferably be infill development or extensions to existing villages, or conversions of existing buildings (NPPG 3, paragraph 52)

• the setting of maximum, not minimum parking standards (NPPG 17, paragraphs 21 and 22)

• the co-ordination of housing densities with transport provision (NPPG 17, paragraph 29)

• car free developments (PAN 57, paragraph 46)

As a result new planning policies to achieve sustainability can be at variance in some areas with approved development plans. It is possible that a developer's application or proposals for a sustainable residential development will not conform to the approved development plan when this has not been recently revised although it is worth noting that, under certain circumstances, NPPG1 explicitly permits developments contrary to approved development plans⁶.

The biggest obstacle to maximising sustainability, however, is that housing providers must work with the opportunities that arise. The Government has issued guidance that local planning authorities should favour a sequential approach to development whereby developers are required to consider sustainability as a priority when evaluating developments and sites⁷. This means developing sites which can deliver sustainable development in advance of alternative sites, for example developing brownfield sites before greenfield sites (Figure 2.3). RSLs rarely if ever have the luxury of a range of sites from which to choose for development and a sequential evaluation of a number of sites in terms of meeting sustainability objectives is rarely possible. RSLs must work with the sites that become available when they become available.

Figure 2.3 Maximising urban density, through developing brownfield sites over greenfield sites. (after Rudlin and Falk)

Nevertheless, housing providers can look for sites which offer opportunities for sustainable development and develop those sites which do become available in sustainable ways.

Discussion with local planning authorities on how this can be done will aid the development process and developers should attempt to incorporate the Scottish Office guidance given in Box 2.1 into their development programme wherever possible. It can be assumed that development proposals which enhance sustainability will be considered more favourably by planning authorities than those which do not⁸.

2.2.2 Mixed land uses

Mixed land use developments have the potential to

• reduce travel by bringing different activities closer together

• revitalise an area formerly dominated by only one activity

• increase neighbourhood safety and security

• enhance sense of place and quality of life, especially for the elderly and non-mobile

• increase access to employment

RSLs can become involved in mixed use development in a variety of ways:

• by developing housing in areas with no existing residential property (either new build or redevelopment, e.g. conversion of the upper floors of commercial or retail buildings). This need not require partnerships with other agencies but may require challenging an existing local development plan (Figure 2.4). The Merchant City in Glasgow is a former commercial area which has become mixed use as a result of private residential development and conversion of warehousing to residential use

• by developing more than one activity in a single building (e.g. Perthshire Housing Association's property in Scott Street, Perth where the Association's offices are on the ground floor of their own flatted development; also East Lothian Housing Association and Partick Housing Association have property with workspaces on the ground floor and housing on upper floors)

• by becoming involved in non-residential as well as residential development. Queens Cross Housing Association has established sister organisations to develop workshop and office accommodation within the Association's geographic area of operation. Although not linked to specific housing developments, attempts are made to lease the premises to businesses connected to the Association's activities such as repair and maintenance. Moreover, sites unsuitable for housing development have been used for some of the workshops and offices

• by becoming involved in comprehensive regeneration projects which are designed to produce mixed use development. The Crown Street Regeneration Project for the Gorbals, in Glasgow has produced residential, retail, entertainment and office space; some of the residential properties are being developed by the New Gorbals Housing Association (see Case Study 1).

More detailed guidance on mixed use development can be found in Making Places: a Guide to Good Practice in Undertaking Mixed Use Development Schemes (English Partnerships and Urban Villages Forum 1998)⁹.

2.2.3 Residential densities

• Increasing residential densities can:

• reduce land take (most significantly when moving from 20 to 40 dwellings per hectare)

• reduce travel and enhance the viability of public transport increase opportunities for non-transport energy saving (for example by making CHP possible)

• reduce the space required for roads and car parking and make development more pedestrian friendly

• enhance the viability of existing or potential facilities by

• increasing numbers of people within walking distance.

The DETR¹⁰ guidance on density suggests using dwellings per hectare (DPH) for estimating development land requirements, and habitable rooms per hectare (HRH) at the site-specific level. The latter allows for greater flexibility in finding the best solution for a particular site (e.g. flats or houses) (Figures 2.5 - 2.8). No single figure can be given as the correct net residential density, but densities of over 70 DPH have been achieved in the Crown Street Regeneration Project in Glasgow and higher densities than this are compatible with quality residential environments with careful design. Densities of 40-50 DPH (225-275 HRH) should be easily obtainable without damaging residential quality in most circumstances (current suburban densities are 20 DPH or lower in many areas). Most RSLs in Scotland are already building at high density because of land costs, but the environmental advantages of doing so should not be ignored. This illustrates how environmental considerations and cost effectiveness reinforce one another.

The following should also be noted:

• higher density itself is not sufficient and must be accompanied by other design standards (such as lower parking provision, preservation of open space and high building quality)

• higher densities do not mean "town cramming" and should be accompanied by good urban design (see Section 2.2.7)

• they can be achieved without recourse to high rise development

• where a local plan which has not been recently revised to take account of sustainability objectives is prescriptive with regard to density, discussions should take place with the LPA as to the potential for increasing the density allowed

• densities should be varied according to local conditions

• the unthinking application of high densities can make development less sustainable. The highest density development should be located around traffic nodes and accessible to public transport. High densities remote from public transport merely increase the numbers of people who are car dependent. Similarly, high density residential development remote from existing infrastructure and other land uses increases the need for extra expenditure and resource use on new infrastructure. Wherever possible high density development should take advantage of existing spare capacity.

More detailed guidance is available in the DETR documents The Use of Density in Urban Planning and Planning for Sustainable Development: Toward Better Practice, Chapter 2 See also guidance from Llewelyn-Davies (1994 and 1998)¹¹.

2.2.4 Brownfield sites

The use of brownfield sites:

• reduces demand for green field land

• enhances the viability of public transport

• makes maximum use of existing infrastructure

• increases overall urban densities and the viability of existing services

• offers opportunities for high quality residential development in terms of increased access to jobs, shops and other services

• provides the potential for innovation, such as car free development.

Brownfield sites are not restricted to urban areas and should also be used in rural areas when available and appropriate. Redundant airfields or hospitals for instance can be used for residential development as long as other sustainability principles are satisfied. Not all brownfield sites will be suitable for residential use (for example where public transport is absent) and difficulties may be presented such as land contamination and fragmented land ownership. These may make a sequential procedure of site evaluation in which brownfield sites are examined before greenfield development difficult given the constraints of a development programme, but RSLs should be positive in their attitude to brownfield development.

2.2.5 Transport considerations

A sustainable neighbourhood should reduce the need to travel; where travel is necessary opportunities to walk, cycle and use public transport should be maximised. Walking and cycling in particular should be encouraged. This not only reduces pollution but is also an important element of building community cohesion; a neighbourhood within which people feel comfortable walking will facilitate more social interaction.

Mixed land uses and higher residential densities have already been mentioned as helpful in reducing overall travel and facilitating walking, cycling and public transport (Figures 2.9 - 2.10). Sites which have poor access to public transport should not be developed unless it will be provided in the near future. In addition, developers should consider the following as development options:

• decrease the amount of space within developments for vehicles and maximise space for pedestrians; pavements should be widened and roads narrowed

• the setting of maximum rather than minimum parking standards

• car free developments where appropriate (for example in central locations where high quality public transport is available and access to employment, shops and other facilities is possible by walking or cycling)

• establishment of home zones - residential developments within which strict controls are placed on vehicles (for example a very low speed limit such as 10 mph). This creates a residential environment within which public space is more user friendly in general and child friendly in particular. Nine pilot home zones have been established in England.¹²

2.2.6 Community and sustainability

Community cohesion is a vital element of neighbourhood sustainability and has been damaged in the past by social polarisation and tenure segregation. RSLs provide mainly for those on low incomes or who are vulnerable in some other way. It is important that residential provision for these groups occurs in such a way that they are integrated into the broader community. Mixed communities can be encouraged by:

• mixed tenure developments

• allocation systems for rented accommodation which place less emphasis on housing need.

RSLs may wish to consider these as options within their general development programme. Either option can be used or both. A partnership with a private developer in which the former builds dwellings for sale while an RSL builds rented accommodation within the same area would enable the RSL to continue to prioritise housing need in their allocations and produce mixed neighbourhoods.

2.2.7 Urban and neighbourhood design

The elements of sustainable residential development have been described in the preceding sections. Whether a particular development succeeds or not depends in part on how these different elements are put together, in other words on high quality urban design. This has tended to be neglected in the past, especially outside central city areas. Moreover developers, including RSLs, have devoted most of their attention to dwelling design and paid less attention to overall neighbourhood design and quality (Figures 2.11 - 2.13). The quality of public space is as important as private space in determining the success of our neighbourhoods and settlements. It is important that all developers understand what contributes to good urban design. When designing their own development, they should take into account its context and the manner in which it relates to other adjacent developments and activities. Some broad principles of good urban design produced by the Urban and Economic Development Group are shown in Box 2.2¹³, and a Scottish example of careful urban design is given in Case Study 1.

Box 2.2 Principles of urban design

• Quality space — a high quality urban environment created by well proportioned buildings and attractive, well maintained spaces. This public realm is human in scale but urban in nature and designed to promote interaction and to accommodate the diversity of urban life.

• A framework of streets and squares — An urban structure based upon a clear network of streets and public squares designed to serve both as routes and as public places supervised by the occupants of surrounding buildings.

• A rich mix of uses — A diversity of uses, buildings and tenures accommodated within a common street pattern. This reduces commuting and car travel to facilities as well as fostering activity and greater security throughout the day and a more balanced community.

• A critical mass of activity — A density of uses to create sufficient activity and people to animate streets and public places and to sustain shops and other public facilities.

• Minimal environmental harm — The development of urban areas which are sustainable both in terms of their environmental impact and in their ability to be flexible and adapt to future changes. This includes good public transport, waste recycling, combined heat and power, well insulated housing, urban ecology, water saving and sustainable materials.

• Integration and permeability — A framework of streets to provide a degree of permeability giving a choice of routes and making the area feel safer. Successful urban areas avoid the development of housing and workspace as defined estates but rather mix them up and blur the boundaries between them.

• A sense of place — The use of landmarks, vistas and focal points along with the incorporation of existing features and buildings or imaginative landscaping and public art to give new urban areas a unique character and memorability.

FROM URBED WEB SITE.

2.2.8 Rural Areas

Although the principles of sustainability are the same in both rural and urban areas, practical ways of achieving sustainability objectives will differ. In particular, the potential for reducing travel in rural areas through residential development is significantly less than in urban areas.

Nevertheless, the Scottish Executive has recommended that where development is necessary in the countryside, it should preferably be infill development or extensions to existing villages, or conversions of existing buildings¹⁴. This will have some effect on reducing travel where development takes place in or adjacent to existing settlements but more significantly will make the maximum use of existing land and building resources. Guidance has also been issued stating that where new settlements are necessary they should be readily serviced by public transport¹⁵.

2.2.9 Partnership

For a housing provider to play a full part in achieving sustainable neighbourhoods, it may have to co-operate with a variety of organisations. As well as the planning authority, partners are likely to include other public sector bodies, voluntary and private sector agencies, and not least local residents themselves¹⁶. Sustainable housing development reinforces the wider action agenda for housing which recognises the links between housing and health, education and employment, which in turn depend on the co-operation and partnership of a range of delivery agencies.

Partnerships operate at a range of spatial scales, from inter - authority to neighbourhood levels¹⁷. As far as sustainability is concerned, RSLs can become involved with other bodies at two levels:

• at the local authority level by contributing to Local Agenda 21 strategies and Community Plans¹⁸. This will involve helping local authorities with the development of general strategies rather than specific projects

• at neighbourhood level by developing specific projects designed to contribute to sustainability objectives. Attempts should be made to involve those who will be living in and adjacent to the proposed development.

An example of a partnership which is delivering sustainable development is the Homes for the Future project, a mixed tenure, brownfield residential development adjacent to Glasgow Green. This involves the Glasgow Development Agency, Scottish Homes, the Wise Group (employment training agency), Thenew Housing Association and four private developers.

Footnotes