The Health of Children and Young People

References and notes

1 Chakravarthy MV, Joyner MJ, Booth FW. An obligation for primary care physicians to prescribe physical activity to sedentary patients to reduce the risk of chronic health conditions. Mayo Clin Proc, 2002; 77: 165-173.

2 See for example Helmrich SP, Ragland DR, Leung RW, Paffenbarger RS. Physical activity and reduced occurrence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, New Engl J Med, 1991; 325: 147-152; Wolman R. Osteoporosis and exercise, BMJ, 1994; 309:400-403.

3 Berlin JA, Colditz GA. A meta-analysis of physical activity in the prevention of coronary heart disease. Am J Epidemiol, 1990; 132: 612-628.

4 Morris JN. Exercise in the prevention of coronary heart-disease - todays best buy in public-health. Med Sci Sport Exer, 1994; 26: 807-814.

5 Hillsdon M, Cavill N, Nanchahal K, Diamond A, White IR. National level promotion of physical activity: results from England's ACTIVE for LIFE campaign. J Epidemiol Community Health, 2001; 55: 755-761.

6 See for example The Health of the Nation. A strategy for health in England, HMSO, London 1992; More people more active more often. Physical activity in England: A consultation paper. Department of Health, London, June 1995.

7 See for example Shaper A G, Wanamathee G. Physical activity and ischaemic heart disease in middle-aged British men, Brit Heart J, 1991; 66: 384-394; Powell KE, Thompson PD, Casperson CT et al. Physical activity and the incidence of coronary heart disease, Annu Rev Publ Health, 1987; 8:235-287.

8 Killoran A, Fentern P, Caspersen C. (eds). Moving on: international perspectives on promoting physical activity, Health Education Authority, London, 1995.

9 Riddoch C. Relationships between physical activity and physical health in young people. In Biddle S, Sallis J and Cavill N (eds) 1998 ibid.

10 Boreham C, Riddoch C. The physical activity, fitness and health of children. J Sport Sci, 2001;19:915-929.

11 Harro M, Riddoch C. Physical activity. In: Amstrong N, Van Mehelen W, (eds): Paediatric Exercise Science and Medicine. Oxford University Press, Oxford: 77-84, 2000.

12 Fox KR, Riddoch, C. Charting the physical activity patterns of contemporary children and adolescents. P Nutr Soc, 2000; 59: 497-504.

13 Riddoch C. Relationships between physical activity and physical health in young people in Biddle S, Sallis J and Cavill N (eds) 1998 ibid, p.39.

14 Blair SN, Kohl HW, Paffenbarger RS, Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW. Physical-fitness and all-cause mortality ­ a prospective-study of healthy-men and women. JAMA, 1989; 262: 2395-2401.

15 Van Mechelen W. Etiology and prevention of sports injuries in youth. In: Froberg K, Lammert O, Steen Hansen H, Blimkie JR (eds). Children and Exercise XVIII: Exercise and Fitness ­ Benefits and Risks, Odense University Press, Odense, 1997.

16 Biddle S, Sallis J and Cavill N (eds). Young and Active? Young people and health-enhancing physical activity - evidence and implications, Health Education Authority, London, 1998.

17 Caspersen CJ, Powell KE, Christenson GM. Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness - definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Rep, 1985; 100: 126-131.

18 Kohl H, Fulton J, Caspersen C. Assessment of physical activity among children and adolescents: A review and synthesis. Prev Med, 2000; 31: S54-S76.

19 Allied Dunbar National Fitness Survey, Health Education Authority and Sports Council, London, 1992.

20 Work on developing and amending the Health Survey questions on children's physical activity was carried out in collaboration with Alison Walker, who gave valuable advice on topic coverage and question wording.

21 Prior G and Walker A. Children's physical activity: A report on development work carried out on a module of questions for the Health Survey for England (unpublished).

22 Baranowski T. Validity and reliability of self report measures of physical- activity - an information-processing perspective. Res Q Exercise Sport, 1988; 59: 314-327.

23 Armstrong N, Balding J, Gentle P and Kirby B. Patterns of physical activity among 11-16 year old British children, BMJ, 1990; 301: 203-205.

24 Bailey RC, Olson J, Pepper SL, Porszasz J, Barstow TJ, Cooper DM. The level and tempo of childrens physical activities - an observational study. Med Sci Sport Exe, 1995; 7: 1033-1041.

25 Limitations of the self-report approach are discussed in Sallis J. Self-report measures of children's physical activity, J School Health, 1991; 61: 215-219.

26 Prior G. Physical activity. In: Prescot-Clarke and Paola Primatesta (eds). The Health Survey for England. The Health of Young People '95-'97. The Stationery Office, London, 1998.

27 Trost SG, Pate RR, Sallis JF, Freedson PS, Taylor WC, Dowda M, Sirard J. Age and gender differences in objectively measured physical activity in youth, Med Sci Sport Exe, 2002; 34: 350-355.

28 Van Mechelen W, Twisk JWR, Post GB, Snel J, Kemper HCG. Physical activity of young people: the Amsterdam Longitudinal Growth and Health Study. Med Sci Sport Exe, 2000; 32: 1610-1616.

29 Telama, R, Yang XL. Decline of physical activity from youth to young adulthood in Finland. Med Sci Sport Exe, 2000; 32: 1617-1622.

30 Finn, K, Johannsen, N, Specker, B. Factors associated with physical activity in preschool children. J Pediatr, 2002; 140: 81-85.

31 LeMura LM, Andreacci J, Carlonas R, Klebez JM, Chelland S. Evaluation of physical activity measured via accelerometry in rural fourth-grade children. Percept Motor Skill, 2000; 90: 329-337.

32 Almeida M, Fox K. Preliminary evidence for an activity-fatness relationship in Portuguese adolescents. J Sport Sci, 1998; 16: 31-32.

33 DeLany JP, Bray GA, Harsha DW, Volaufova J, Champagne C. Energy expenditure measurements in lean and obese girls and boys. Obes Res, 2000; 8: O63.

34 Janz KF, Mahoney LT. Maturation, gender, and video game playing are related to physical activity intensity in adolescents: The Muscatine study. Pediatr Exerc Sci, 1997; 9: 353-363.

35 Sallis JF, Prochaska, JJ, Taylor WC. A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents. Med Sci Sport Exe, 2000; 32: 963-975.

36 Gregory J, Lowe S. National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Young People Aged 4 to 18 Years. The Stationery Office, London, 2000.

37 Caspersen CJ, Merritt RK, Stephens, T. International activity patterns. In: Dishman RK (Ed.) Advances in Exercise Adherence. Human Kinetics, Champaign, USA, 1994.

38 As with RG social class, full-time students who had never worked, people never employed, armed forces personnel and occupations inadequately described are not included in the 5-category version of the NS-SEC. They are also not included in the total column in tables showing NS-SEC breaks. For a description of the operational categories of the NS-SEC see http://www.statistics.gov.uk/methods_quality/ns_sec.

39 Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. Index of Deprivation 2000. Regeneration Research Summary No. 31. Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions, 2000.

40 http://www.statistics.gov.uk/geography/gor.asp

41 Maffeis C, Talamini G, Tato, L. Influence of diet, physical activity and parents' obesity on children's adiposity: a four-year longitudinal study. Int J Obesity, 1998; 22: 758-764.

42 Moussa MAA, Skaik MB, Selwanes SB, Yaghy OY, Binothman SA. Factors associated with obesity in school-children. Int J Obesity, 1994; 18: 513-515.

43 Rowlands AV, Eston RG, Ingledew DK. Relationship between activity levels, aerobic fitness, and body fat in 8- to 10-yr-old children. J Appl Physiol, 1999; 86: 1428-1435.

44 Sallis JF, Taylor WC, Dowda M, Freedson PS, Pate RR. Correlates of vigorous physical activity for children in grades 1 through 12: Comparing parent-reported and objectively measured physical activity. Pediatr Exerc Sci, 2002; 14: 30-44.

45 Berkowitz RI, Agras WS, Korner AF, Kraemer HC, Zeanah CH. Physical-activity and adiposity - a longitudinal-study from birth to childhood. J Pediatr, 1985; 106:734-738.

46 Janz KF, Golden JC, Hansen JR. Heart-rate monitoring of physical-activity in children and adolescents - the Muscatine Study. Pediatrics, 1992; 89: 256-261.

47 Rowlands AV, Ingledew DK, Eston RG. The effect of type of physical activity measure on the relationship between body fatness and habitual physical activity in children: a meta-analysis. Ann of Hum Biol, 2000; 27: 479-497.

48 Matthews CE, Freedson PS, Hebert JR, Stanek EJ, Merriam PA, Rosal MC, Ebbeling CB, Ockene IS. Seasonal variation in household, occupational, and leisure time physical activity: longitudinal analyses from the seasonal variation of blood cholesterol study. Am J Epidemiol, 2001; 153: 172-183.

49 Garcia AW, Pender NJ, Antonakos CL, Ronis DL. Changes in physical activity beliefs and behaviors of boys and girls across the transition to junior high school. J Adolesc Health, 1998; 22: 394-402.

50 Poest CA, Williams JR, Witt DD, Atwood ME. Physical activity patterns of preschool children. Early Child Res Q, 1989; 4: 367-376.

51 Gordon-Larsen P, McMurray RG, Popkin BM. Determinants of adolescent physical activity and inactivity patterns. Pediatrics, 2000; 105: U63-U70.

52 Sunnegardh J, Bratteby LE, Sjolin S. Physical activity and sports involvement in 8- and 13-year old children in Sweden. Acta Paediatr Scand, 1985; 74: 904-912.

53 Van Veldhoven NH, Vermeer A, Bogaard JM. Children with asthma and physical exercise: effects of an exercise programme. Clin Rehabil, 2001; 15:360-370.

54 Rasmussen F, Lambrechtsen J, Siedersted HC, Hansen HS, Hansen NO. Low physical fitness in childhood is associated with the development of asthma in young adulthood: the Odense schoolchild study. Eur Respir J 2000; 16:866-70.

55 Nystad W. The physical activity level in children with asthma based on a survey among 7-16 year old school children. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1997; 7:331-35.

56 American College of Sports Medicine. The recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness in healthy adults. Med Scienc Sports Exerc, 1990; 22:265-274.

57 Gray R. Physical Activity in Colhoun H and Prescott-Clarke P (eds) Health Survey for England 1994, HMSO, London, 1996.

58 Blair SN, Connelly JC. How much physical activity should we do? The case for moderate amounts and intensities of physical activity. In Killoran A et al (eds) ibid.

59 Sallis JF and Patrick K. Physical activity guidelines for adolescents: consensus statement, Paediatr Exerc Sci, 1994; 6:302-314.

60 Pate RR, Pratt M, Blair SN, Haskell WL, Macene CA, Borchard C, Buchner D, Ettinger W. et al. Physical activity and public health: a recommendation from the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine. JAMA, 1995; 273:402-407.

61 Strategy statement on physical activity, Department of Health, London, 1996.

62 US Department of Health and Human Services. Physical activity and health: a report of the Surgeon General, Department of Health and Human Services, Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, National Centre for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Pittsburgh, 1996.

63 Sports and Exercise activities - Energy cost

Vigorous:

a) All occurrences of running/jogging, squash, boxing, kick boxing, skipping, trampolining.

b) Sports coded as vigorous intensity if they had made the informant breathe heavily or sweaty, but
otherwise coded as moderate intensity including: cycling, aerobics, keep fit, gymnastics, dance for fitness,
weight training, football, rugby, swimming, tennis, badminton.

Moderate:

a) See 'vigorous' category b).

b) All occasions of a large number of activities including: basketball, canoeing, fencing, field athletics,
hockey, ice skating, lacrosse, netball, roller skating, rowing, skiing, volleyball.

c) Sports coded as moderate intensity if they had made the informant breathe heavily or sweaty, but
otherwise coded as light intensity, including: exercise (press-ups, sit-ups etc), dancing.

Light:

a) See 'moderate' category c).

b) All occasions of a large number of activities including: abseiling, baseball, bowls, cricket, croquet, darts,
fishing, golf, riding, rounders, sailing, shooting, snooker, snorkelling, softball, table tennis, yoga.

64 Home activities:

Examples of 'heavy' Gardening or DIY work classified as moderate intensity:

Digging, clearing rough ground, building in stone/bricklaying, mowing large areas with a hand mower, felling trees, chopping wood, mixing/laying concrete, moving heavy loads, refitting a kitchen or bathroom or any similar heavy manual work.

Examples of 'heavy' Housework classified as moderate intensity:

Walking with heavy shopping for more than 5 minutes, moving heavy furniture, spring cleaning, scrubbing floors with a scrubbing brush, cleaning windows, or other similar heavy Housework.

Examples of 'light' Gardening or DIY work classified as light intensity:

Hoeing, weeding, pruning, mowing with a power mower, planting flowers/seeds, decorating, minor household repairs, car washing and polishing, car repairs and maintenance.

65 Ford ES, Heath GW, Mannino DM, Redd SC. Leisure-time physical activity patterns among US adults with asthma. Chest 2003; 124:432-7.